Latin Abbreviations in English: etc., i.e., e.g., vs., cf., viz. and More

E.g. means "for example" and introduces some examples; i.e. means "that is" and restates something in other words; etc. means "and so on" and ends a list. American style puts a comma after i.e. and e.g.; British practice often leaves it out. In formal and academic prose, many writers prefer the plain English words.

The short answer

Latin abbreviations are shorthand for phrases English borrowed centuries ago. The ones you meet most are etc. (and so on), i.e. (that is), e.g. (for example), vs. (versus), cf. (compare) and viz. (namely). Each has one job. If you cannot remember that job, write the English words instead: for example, that is, and so on. Nothing is lost, and the sentence is clearer.

Reference table

Note that CE and BCE are not Latin; they are English labels used as alternatives to AD and BC. They are included because writers look them up in the same place.

Etc.

Etc. closes a list when the reader can guess the rest. It means "and other similar things", so it must follow items of the same kind.

• The library offers journals, e-books, databases, etc.
• The kit includes a charger, cable, case, etc.

Rules that avoid the usual mistakes:

• Do not write "and etc." Et already means "and".
• Do not use it for people. Write "and others" or "and colleagues".
• Do not add it after "such as" or "e.g." The list is already open: "fruit such as apples and pears" is complete.
• Do not put it after only one item. One example is not a pattern.
• Punctuation: it keeps its full stop. At the end of a sentence one full stop does both jobs: "...folders, etc." In the middle of a sentence, put a comma after it: "Pens, paper, etc., are provided."
• Formal writing: many academic guides advise against it because it hides what you mean. Name the items or write "and so on".

I.e. and e.g.

These two are often swapped. The difference is simple.

• e.g. gives some examples, not all: Choose a fruit, e.g., an apple or a pear. (Other fruit is possible.)
• i.e. gives the exact meaning or the full answer: Choose a fruit, i.e., something from the bowl on the table. (It restates.)

A quick test: replace the abbreviation with "for example" or "that is". If "for example" fits, use e.g.; if "that is" fits, use i.e. For a longer explanation with more cases, see the entry on e.g. or i.e..

Comma after i.e. and e.g.?

This is a regional habit, not a law.

Many US guides, such as the APA and Chicago manuals, call for the comma; check which one your course or employer uses and stay consistent within one document. Another difference: US usage often keeps both full stops, while British publishers sometimes drop them in house style.

Where to put them

Both abbreviations normally sit in parentheses in academic prose: Participants completed a short task (e.g., a reading test). In running text outside brackets, writers usually switch to "for example" and "that is" because they read more smoothly aloud.

Vs., v. and cf.

vs. (or v. in legal case names) means "against" or "compared with".

• Print vs. digital reading — fine in a title or table.
• Brown v. Board of Education — case names use v. in US legal citation.
• In a sentence, "versus" is spelled out when the sentence is formal: The study compared online versus classroom teaching.

cf. means "compare" and points the reader to a source that supports, contrasts with or relates to your point. It is not a synonym for "see". Use "see" for direct support and "cf." for a parallel or contrast: The same pattern appears in earlier surveys (cf. Table 3). In humanities writing it appears mainly in notes.

Viz.

Viz. means "namely" and introduces a complete list, not examples: The committee has three members, viz. the chair, the secretary and the treasurer. It is less common than it once was and often reads as old-fashioned. Use "namely" instead. Pronounce it "namely" aloud if you do use it.

N.B., P.S. and ca.

• N.B. flags an important point. It works in notes and memos, but in formal prose, "Please note" is clearer.
• P.S. is for an afterthought after the signature of a letter or email. For emails, see the guide to what P.S. means.
• ca. or c. means "about", used with dates and figures: ca. 1850. Some style guides prefer "about" or "approximately" in running text.

A.m. and p.m.

Write a.m. and p.m. in lowercase with full stops (US) or am and pm without them (common in UK and Australian usage). Put a space between the number and the letters in many style guides: 10:30 a.m. Do not combine them with "in the morning" (10 a.m. in the morning repeats the meaning), and do not use them with 24-hour times (15:00 p.m. is wrong). Midday is best written "noon" and midnight "midnight", because "12 a.m." and "12 p.m." confuse readers.

AD, BC, CE and BCE

Both systems count years the same way: 1 BC is followed by AD 1, and the year numbers are identical. CE and BCE are widely used in scholarly and museum writing because they do not refer to a religious event. AD and BC remain common in general writing, schools and newspapers. Pick one pair and use it throughout. Add the label only when the date could be misread; for modern years it is usually unnecessary.

When to write the English words instead

Choose words over abbreviations in these cases:

1. Formal and academic text. Essays, reports and dissertations read better with "for example", "that is" and "and so on". Check your department's style guide, since some require or forbid certain abbreviations.
2. Writing for international readers. Not every reader recognises "viz." or "cf.", and many learners of English confuse i.e. and e.g.
3. Sentences that carry the main argument. Keep abbreviations in brackets and notes, not in the main clause.
4. When you are unsure which one you need. The English phrase cannot be used wrongly.
5. Headings, titles and the first line of an email. Spell them out.

Citation abbreviations such as et al., ibid. and op. cit. follow separate rules in citation styles. They are covered in the guide to et al., ibid. and op. cit..

Before and after

Checklist

• Did I choose e.g. for some examples and i.e. for the exact meaning?
• Did I use one style for commas after them (US or UK) throughout?
• Is etc. after a list of similar items, never after "such as" and never written "and etc."?
• Have I put a comma after "etc." in the middle of a sentence?
• Is the time written either a.m./p.m. or am/pm, consistently, with no 24-hour clash?
• Did I pick AD/BC or CE/BCE and use it throughout?
• Could a plain English phrase serve this reader better?

Using AdeptWrite tools

Run your draft through the Grammar Checker to catch "and etc." and punctuation slips; every change is highlighted so you can accept or reject it. The Spell Checker helps you keep US or UK spelling consistent, which pairs well with choosing a comma habit. If an abbreviation-heavy sentence reads clumsily, the Sentence Rewriter can suggest a plainer version. These tools offer suggestions and can miss context, so you decide what stays.

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